An Analysis of a Media-Based Approach to Teach Programming to Middle School Students

See discussions stats and author profiles for this publication at httpswwwresearchgatenetpublication323330571 An Analysis of a MediaBased Approach to Teach Programming to Middle School Students Conference Paper February 2018 DOI 10114531594503159526 CITATIONS 8 READS 334 3 authors Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects Models Tools and Techniques for Software Evolution View project Design and Assessment of Software Engineering Education Initiatives View project Luis Gustavo Araujo Universidade Federal da Bahia 26 PUBLICATIONS 86 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Roberto Bittencourt Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana 111 PUBLICATIONS 609 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE David Santos Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana 25 PUBLICATIONS 101 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Roberto Bittencourt on 08 March 2018 The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file An Analysis of a MediaBased Approach to Teach Programming to Middle School Students Luis Gustavo J Araujo UEFS State University of Feira de Santana Feira de Santana Bahia Brazil luisaraujoifbagmailcom Roberto A Bittencourt UEFS State University of Feira de Santana Feira de Santana Bahia Brazil robertouefsbr David M B Santos UEFS State University of Feira de Santana Feira de Santana Bahia Brazil davidmbsuefsbr ABSTRACT Previous studies have presented approaches to teach programming based on contexts close to students such as games robotics and media Those contexts may turn learning easier and more motivat ing Media manipulation is one of such contexts relevant to teenage students for their thorough use of image applications and social networks In this work we design and evaluate a spiral approach to teach programming to ninthgrade students of a middle school in Brazils countryside The approach is contextualized by media ie image creation and manipulation and we use the Python lan guage with turtle graphics and JES tools to support it Results point out to the influence of context and tools on learning significant changes of perception about computing high motivation to learn how to code as well as a positive correlation between learning and motivation ACM Reference format Luis Gustavo J Araujo Roberto A Bittencourt and David M B Santos 2018 An Analysis of a MediaBased Approach to Teach Programming to Middle School Students In Proceedings of The 49th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education Baltimore MD USA Feb 2124 2018 SIGCSE 18 6 pages httpsdoiorg10114531594503159526 1 INTRODUCTION Children and teenagers increasingly interact with computers tablets and smartphones However Their use of information technology IT is mostly passive instead of learning how to actively express themselves in those technologies by means of computer program ming and computational thinking In an environment where IT is pervasive learning how to code software is becoming a fundamen tal skill and various initiatives throughout the world are conceiving curricula pedagogies and tools to help translate such knowledge and skills to middle school education 6 16 17 In Brazil middle school education grades 6 to 9 ages 11 to 14 aims to ensure that each and every student has the background and develops the skills needed for the exercise of life in society as well as the means to advance at work and in further studies Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored Abstracting with credit is permitted To copy otherwise or republish to post on servers or to redistribute to lists requires prior specific permission andor a fee Request permissions from permissionsacmorg SIGCSE 18 Feb 2124 2018 Baltimore MD USA 2018 Association for Computing Machinery ACM ISBN 978145035103418021500 httpsdoiorg10114531594503159526 However very little is mentioned in Brazilian middle school educa tion curriculum guidelines about either computational thinking or computer programming To fill that gap the Brazilian Computer Society SBC has recently published the References of Formation in Computing Basic Education which describes guidelines competencies and skills of computing for child education for the nine years of basic education and for the three years of high school 15 Among those competencies and skills computer programming is present both in basic education and in high school Although lacking in the educational guidelines of the Brazilian government computer programming is present in various initia tives of teaching computational skills in schools of this country 2 Some schools include computing as a separate subject in the middle school In those schools it is usual to teach computer pro gramming mostly by using a contextbased approach with typical contexts like games or robotics These contexts are usually close to the students concerns and likes and are intended to foster their motivation Very few of those initiatives however use the context of media eg creation and manipulation of images sounds or video by means of programming 1 One of the first approaches to teaching programming using the context of media manipulation occurred at Georgia Tech and aimed to minimize the problems faced by students of Architecture Admin istration and Arts 8 In this approach called media computation students manipulate pixels to create Photoshoplike image effects manipulate samples to split or revert sounds create text to compose HTML sites and overlay images in frames to create videos In this case media manipulation becomes a motivating and facilitating element to learn programming combining the abstraction of ad vanced concepts with immediate and visual feedback as well as for being close to students lives However this context requires more thorough investigation in other institutions especially in other levels of education In Brazil the literature is scarce on the use of media computation 2 Recently two papers used media to teach programming both in middle school 1 and in higher education 14 Both papers aimed to arouse interest and motivation for the area of computing However further studies are needed to investigate the adequacy and appropriate translation of this context into middle school especially in the Brazilian reality The work presented in this paper aims to evaluate the use of media computation as a contextualized activity for teaching pro gramming to ninthgrade middle school students We used two learning blocks building geometric figures and image manipula tion In addition to the chosen context we used a spiral learning Paper Session K thru 8 2 SIGCSE18 February 2124 2018 Baltimore MD USA 1005 approach in which content is repeated at increasingly complex levels and a lab organization based on pair programming We used a mixedmethods case study strategy to answer the following research questions RQ1 What is the impact of using a context of media computation to student motivation RQ2 What is the impact of a spiral approach to motivation and RQ3 How does the approach affect student perceptions of programming and computing Our case study was performed with 28 students of a municipal school of Amelia Rodrigues Bahia Brazil 2 BACKGROUND Here we describe the background on the contexts we used and the pedagogical and psychological foundations of our work 21 Screen Turtle In the 1970s Simon Papert envisioned the potential of computer use and the possibility for its users not only to consume technology but also to produce it 12 Paperts proposal initially aimed at introducing children into the world of computing through creative activities The core of his idea was to abstract information on how the computer performs its actions focusing on how the user could construct commands to program a computer according to his goals 12 Screen Turtle is an environment developed by Papert that allows drawing figures on a computer screen through simple commands In this environment it is possible to use select and repeat struc tures as well as variable manipulation function definition and use and parameter passing There are no limits to the exploration and creativity use to create geometric shapes and drawings Nowadays the screen turtle has several versions in different languages such as C 13 and Python 8 22 Media Computation In 1999 the CS1 course became mandatory for all students of Geor gia Tech 9 The great challenge of this mixed scenario majors in CS and in other programs was to meet the diverse demands of these groups This scenario initially led to problems such as high failure rates and high plagiarism rates as there was no specific concern about this varied audience In order to minimize these prob lems Georgia Tech professors have created three adapted courses one for Computer Scientists another for Engineers and a third for Architecture Business and Liberal Arts Students 7 In the third course called Media Computation 8 students ma nipulate pixels to create image effects such as grey scale and nega tive manipulate samples to splice or revert sounds compose text in HTML sites and create videos from overlay image frames 9 The first pilot course with Media Computation was given in 2002 8 Among other goals students should be able to read understand and make functional changes to small programs up to 50 lines of code build graphs and manipulate databases Reports on media computation in schools are not as common as in higher education Davis 5 uses it at summer program for high school students This approach is based on image manipulation and uses using the C language alternating short lecture periods and a handson lab The aim is teaching basic concepts of programming In this course students create projects such as spliting images fade effects grey scale replacing color and composing image with chroma key The course was the most popular of this summer program students experiences have been positive and effective showing how this approach is engaging and motivating Another work introduces a creative computing course in two high schools 18 In it instead of solving for roots of polynomials or creating commercial programs student create art interactive media and visualizations Students learn about basic concepts of programming through welldefined projects Teachers have successfully adapted their courses for the creative computing approach increasing both enroll rate and female participation 23 Spiral Approach The spiral approach was created by psychologist Jerome Bruner Brunner is known to be the creator of scaffolding theory and the spiral curriculum According to Brunner Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest way to any child at any stage of development 3 The spiral approach to teaching presents concepts repeatedly and in varied ways with increasing depth thus creating several episodes to deepen a theme from what has been previously taught A subject can be taught in its simplest form with examples that target actions or interaction with certain objects In a second moment this same subject can be approached in more depth adding some important conceptual aspects In a third moment one can introduce a general abstraction of the subject as well as formulas that explain physical phenomena for instance This process allows at each step the use of students previous experience on certain topics that if taught in their completeness could appear confusing and decontextualized Thus there would ini tially be very few interest to understand formulas rules or concepts outside real contexts In addition there is a noticeable reduction of cognitive overload by dividing content based on its degree of complexity 24 Motivation Motivation is an important element of the learning process and is based on several factors In order to better understand each of these factors Keller created a model based on four dimensions Attention Relevance Trust and Satisfaction and named it the ARCS model of motivation 10 The first element of ARCS is attention Attention is paramount both for student learning and motivation 11 Through attention one can observe how committed the student is in performing an activity or in learning something Relevance is an element that leads us to do something If some thing is not relevant to ones interests he or she will not voluntarily do it When applied to instruction one must provide an environ ment of relevance giving the student an apparent reason and in terest to engage in activities Furthermore students should realize that the subject to be learned will have some use for their lives Confidence is directly related to control and to a perspective of success When a student feels confident she in a way feels in control of something that makes her feel secure about her goals 11 Paper Session K thru 8 2 SIGCSE18 February 2124 2018 Baltimore MD USA 1006 Satisfaction can be the result of extrinsic and intrinsic factors The extrinsic factors include grades promotion certificates and other material rewards Intrinsic factors may be anything that in creases selfesteem such as a positive relationship with people or mastering challenges that enhance ones feelings of competence Keller has also developed instruments to measure those dimen sions both from educational materials and courses The Instruc tional Material Motivation Survey IMMS is an instrument that measures motivation of instructional materials to students based on those dimensions 11 Although originally planned for self administered learning materials IMMS may also be used for mea suring motivation of approaches that involve interaction with in structors tools and materials 3 METHODOLOGY We used a research strategy of a mixedmethods case study with qualitative and quantitative methods 4 19 Table 1 Overview of Our Planning Place Gov Luis Viana Filho Basic School Amelia Rodrigues Bahia Brazil Participants 28 Students Activities Geometric Figures square triangle circle start Image Effects Hue Negative Greyscale Black and white Text Content Functions parameters select and repeat structures variables assignment arithmetic and relational operators Tools Python Language JES and Turtle Duração 8 hours 1h per week 31 Scenario The municipality of Amelia Rodrigues has recently added the Com puting subject to the curriculum of its basic education network According to the new curriculum approved in 2016 ninthgrade middle school students are introduced to concepts of computer programming For the computing classes we used the schools computer lab currently with 14 desktop computers a whiteboard and internet connection The first author of this work was also a teacher at this school and was in charge of all computing courses there 32 Participants Participants were 28 students from the ninth grade of middle school 10 boys and 18 girls with a mean age of 148063 years This research project was approved by the institutional review board at the State University of Feira de Santana At the beginning of the research a informed consent form was distributed to students parents who agreed with their childrens participation and signed it All participants data were anonymized 33 Approach In this work we used two modules from the Jython Environment for Students JES the Turtle module who provides screen turtle commands and the Image module which allows image manipu lation through simple functions that act over pictures pixels and colors in the RGB format The two modules present visual feedback and are complementary in terms of complexity Creating pictures with Turtle is simpler and is suitable for the introduction while image manipulation uses more complex concepts like matrices that become appropriate for student after they learn to deal with the Cartesian plane loops and functions seen in the Turtle module Table 1 presents an overview of the planning In the first month we work with programming concepts such as select structures loops functions and parameters in a context of creating geometric figures We use the screen turtle to create simple geometric figures such as the square evolving into more elaborate shapes such as the star After we present concepts students are encouraged to create shapes by writing code in Python In the second month we discuss programming concepts such as functions parameters variables arithmetic and relational operators select structures and loops in a context of image manipulation using JES and the Python language Concepts such as variables select and repeat structures which have already been addressed in previous examples were reintroduced in this new context of image manipulation 34 Data Collection and Analysis In a mixedmethods case study we collect both quantitative and qualitative data As quantitative data students filled a preintervention survey aiming to identify their profile and their perceptions of computing and programming After the intervention they filled a postintervention survey to capture changes to students percep tions In this survey we also captured their motivation from the validated questions of the IMMS questionnaire 11 All 28 students answered the first survey but only 26 answered the second one 10 boys 38 and 16 girls 62 We used inferential statistics to inves tigate whether changes in perception occurred due to intervention Descriptive statistics were used for the other questions To collect qualitative data we conducted semistructured in terviews after the intervention with six students In addition the researcherteacher wrote reflective diaries right after each class Diaries and interviews were coded through content analysis The coding steps involved open coding and axial coding 4 Descriptive categories were generated as analytic memos The analysis led us to explain and describe the results through central themes Qualitative and quantitative results were triangulated to improve our findings We also built some diagrams to integrate the different types of information 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this section we present and discuss our qualitative and quan titative results Figures 1 3 2 and 4 synthesize the relationships between findings from both qualitative and quantitative data1 1Survey results in httpssitesgooglecomsitesigcse2018school Paper Session K thru 8 2 SIGCSE18 February 2124 2018 Baltimore MD USA 1007 41 Motivation Here we present the findings related to motivation according to the ARCS model In the surveys we used a Likert scale of 5 points full disagreement partial disagreement neutral partial agreement and full agreement In the following whenever we mention agreement we mean both partial and full agreement Similarly for disagree ment 411 Attention Analyzing the Attention aspect we noticed that several factors influence students attention In general students disagreed that content repetition led to boredom 83 and that materials slides were unattractive 65 Students agreed that they learned something surprising or unexpected 92 and that the organization of the course 96 variety of exercises and examples 100 contributed to attention From Figure 1 we see that the approach using a variety of con tent provided by the spiral approach and the variety of exercises and examples and by the configuration of the contextualized blocks increases attention The spiral approach also makes it possible to organize content in levels of complexity from the least complex to the most complex a factor pointed out by students Although geometric figures and images are elements of students everyday life the possibility of creating these elements with code has aroused interest Thus learning surprising or unexpected things contributes to attention It is noticed that during classes students took a stance of cu riosity perceived through exploration of the tool questions to the teacher and code manipulation in an autonomous and experimental way 412 Relevance Results on Relevance show that all students relate the content to elements they have already seen done or thought and they think it is important to finish their projects Although the content is something that most students 80 already know they agreed 88 that the content was relevant to their interests and disagreed 96 with the idea that the content was not relevant because they already knew it Students generally agreed with the idea that the content taught was important to their lives being worth knowing relevant to their interests and important to whom was learning programming According to Figure 2 some factors related to context closeness to students lives how the content is related to something they have already seen or to what they already know give the approach the sense of relevance The explanations on how to use the learned skills as well as the content being relevant to students interests for it allows creating filters and figures are elements that give the sensation of relevance Elements such as teaching materials slides and their being able to finish the projects caused by the ease of the Python language and JES are also important aspects 413 Confidence On the Confidence aspect we observed that 14 students 53 have initially found JES not easy but 84 felt confident that they could learn the subject and 88 agreed that they would be able to pass a test Of the 26 students 74 already felt more confident in their first class 80 disagreed that the content was more difficult than they wished Figure 3 describes confidence in detail Looking at the diagram we realize that some factors decrease and other factors increase students confidence The first contact with JES is a factor that reduces confidence because it is their first contact with an IDE type tool Another factor that lowers confidence is the high degree of difficulty of the activities that although adequate to students and classes are impacted by difficulties with mathematics English language and programming However the approach reveals other aspects that increase confi dence Although the first contact is poor JES provides confidence that students will pass tests and learn content Due to the closeness of the context in the first class students already felt confident about what they should learn The spiral approach also contributes to student confidence with two aspects content organization which aids to the certainty that they will learn and the little amount of in formation given during classes because the content was presented very gradually 414 Satisfaction Regarding the Satisfaction aspect we noticed that all the students 100 felt fulfilled after completing their codes felt good in successfully completing the activities and felt rewarded for their efforts made in the projects after the feedback or comments by the teacher 70 would like to learn more about the content and 88 said they enjoyed studying image manipulation Figure 4 describes how satisfaction is affect by the various factors Satisfaction is an element that relates to confidence We noticed that the challenges and difficulties faced by students create a feel ing of satisfaction at the end of the activity a factor provided by the challenges proposed during classes Feedback is a factor that increases satisfaction and it can be visual with is made possible by python and JES Python and JES also make it possible for students to complete activities and this satisfaction can be seen in students celebrations in the classroom Another form of feedback is that by the teacher We noticed that comments and incentives impact student satisfaction 42 Perception Changes about Computing We tried to measure changes in perceptions and feelings on some aspects such as a taste for editing images and for Computing ca reers Table 2 shows through Wilcoxons nonparametric test that there were significant changes in some aspects The Likert scale was converted into a numeric scale from 2 fully disagree to 2 fully agree Median results of pre and postintervention students perceptions are also shown Significant results are highlighted in bold Results show that the approach has positively impacted stu dents perceptions of image editing as being fun about knowing how an editing program works and about what programmers do In addition there has been a positive change on the perception of the Computing profession as being fun 43 Threats to Validity Since we used a mixedmethods case study research approach we do not intend to generalize results to other schools educational systems or countries On the other hand we believe that the rich ac counts from this study will help both researchers and practitioners to better understand how motivation arises in such in a scenario Paper Session K thru 8 2 SIGCSE18 February 2124 2018 Baltimore MD USA 1008 Figure 1 Factors Related to Attention ATTENTION Variety of exercises and examples Contextualized blocks Images and figures Learning surprising or unexpected things Content organization From the least to the most complex causes Spiral approach provides increases Arousing curiosity Tool exploration Questions to the teacher Code manipulation shows as provides Variety of content provides Factors related to the Approach IMMS constructs ARCS Dimension increases increases happens increases increases Figure 2 Factors Related to Relevance RELEVANCE Factors related to the Approach IMMS constructs ARCS Dimension Descriptions and examples of how people use Importance of finishing projects content is relevant to students interests content and form convey the idea that it is worth learning content is related to things they know content is related to things they have already seen Python JES Figures and image effects Slides Apps and Social Networks Programming what what how causes causes provides provides increases increases increases increases increases increases Figure 3 Factors Related to Confidence CONFIDENCE Confidence they would be able to pass a test Factors related to the Approach IMMS constructs ARCS Dimension Confidence they could learn the subject First contact with tool gives impression it would be hard JES Less information in classes Content organization helped them feel they would learn Classes Slides Spiral High level of difficulty of the activities After first lesson they felt more confident about what they should learn Contextualization Difficulties Math English Programming provides causes provides decreases increases increases provides provides in in in decreases increases provides decreases increases causes increases 44 Answering Research Questions Here we analyze the results to answer our research questions RQ1 What is the impact of using a context of media com putation to student motivation From our results we noticed that the context influences several elements of motivation The choice of context should be essentially determined by students profiles In this study students were 148 years old on average and use social networks and image editing applications Thus the media context is suitable for these students However manipulating media through code is something sur prising and unexpected a factor that increases students attention Closeness gives the sense of relevance because content is related to something they already know or have seen as well as being something that they are interested in since they are constantly using social media applications Because they already know the context and know what applica tions do students understand early what is to be learned which raises their confidence in the approach Finally finishing activi ties and having visual feedback that is related to what they like to do affects student satisfaction All these factors reveal a level of motivation that leads students to engage in the activities RQ2 What is the impact of a spiral approach to motivation The introduction to programming can be somewhat complex and frustrating However if the content is presented respecting the level of complexity and the students current moment this situation can be circumvented We noticed that some factors related to the spiral approach directly affect motivation in two aspects attention and confidence The spiral approach we used allows a gradual introduction of content which affects content organization a factor positively evalu ated by students In addition this approach associated with contexts Paper Session K thru 8 2 SIGCSE18 February 2124 2018 Baltimore MD USA 1009 Figure 4 Factors Related to Satisfaction Factors related to the Approach IMMS constructs ARCS Dimension SATISFACTION Feedback or comments after activities Visual feedback Completing the code Challenges and difficulties when finished Congratulating and Encouraging Students celebrations JES Python shows as provides provides provides increases increases increases increases how Table 2 Changes in Students Perceptions Wilcoxons Test Question Median Pre Median Post V pValue Q1 I like to use effects in images 0 0 29 00655 Q2 Editing images is fun 0 2 35 00004 Q3 I know how programs with images work 1 05 25 00131 Q4 I know what programmers do 0 1 155 00010 Q5 Computer programming is easy 1 2 1825 09985 Q6 I think the Computing Profession is fun 1 2 575 00107 Q7 I think the Computing Profession is easy 0 0 865 02487 Q8 Id like to follow the Computing Profession 0 05 15 01951 enabled content variety Both aspects contribute to increased at tention A spiral approach also affects students confidence as it provides very few information during class and helps them to be sure they will learn the content RQ3 How does the approach affect student perceptions of programming and computing Our approach uses a language and environment appropriate to novice students in addition to a context close to their interests and a teaching approach that reduces cognitive overload In this scenario we noticed that students come to understand what programmers do and how image applications work something that is unusual for most middle school students Computing is often seen as boring and tedious In our approach students have come to find computing something more fun 5 CONCLUSIONS A contextualized approach using appropriate materials and asso ciated with an appropriate pedagogical approach is a powerful combination to teach programming Our study presented an ap proach based on media manipulation a context close to the students using the JES environment and the Python language through an spiral approach to teach computer programming to ninthgrade middle school students in Brazil Our results point out that the context used and the spiral ap proach positively affect student motivation In addition the ap proach made significant changes to students perceptions of pro gramming and computing Currently we are running two case studies in vocational high school education in classes 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