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PART 2 UNIT OPERATIONS Chapter 8 Evaporation 489 8.1 Introduction 489 8.2 Types of Evaporation Equipment and Operation Methods 491 8.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients in Evaporators 493 8.4 Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporators 496 8.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect Evaporators 502 8.6 Condensers for Evaporators 511 8.7 Evaporation of Biological Materials 513 8.8 Evaporation Using Vapor Recompression 514 Chapter 9 Drying of Process Materials 520 9.1 Introduction and Methods of Drying 520 9.2 Equipment for Drying 521 9.3 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity 525 9.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials 533 9.5 Rate of Drying Curves 536 9.6 Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying Period 540 9.7 Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying Period 545 9.8 Combined Convection, Radiation, and Conduction 546 9.9 Heat Transfer in Constant-Rate Period 548 9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow 551 9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers 566 9.11 Freeze Drying of Biological Materials 566 9.12 Unsteady-State Thermal Processing and Sterilization of Biological Materials 569 Chapter 10 Stage and Continuous Gas-Liquid Separation Processes 584 10.1 Types of Separation Processes and Methods 584 10.2 Equilibrium Relations Between Phases 586 10.3 Single and Multiple Equilibrium Contact Stages 594 10.4 Mass Transfer Between Phases 602 10.5 Continuous Humidification Processes 617 10.6 Absorption in Plate and Packed Towers 620 10.7 Absorption of Concentrated Mixtures in Packed Towers 627 10.8 Estimation of Mass Transfer Coefficients for Packed Towers 630 Chapter 11 Vapor-Liquid Separation Processes 640 11.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations 640 11.2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor-Liquid System 642 11.3 Simple Distillation Methods 644 11.4 Distillation with Reflux and McCabe-Thiele Method 652 11.5 Distillation and Absorption Tray Efficiencies 666 11.6 Fractional Distillation Using Enthalpy-Concentration Method 669 11.7 Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures 679 Contents ix Transport Processes and Unit Operations Third Edition Christie J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Unit Operations CHRISTIE J. GEANKOPLIS University of Minnesota Transport Processes and Unit Operations THIRD EDITION Prentice-Hall International, Inc. ISBN 0-13-045253-X This edition may be sold only in those countries to which it is consigned by Prentice-Hall International. It is not to be re-exported and it is not for sale in the U.S.A., Mexico, or Canada. © 1991, 1983, 1978 by P T R Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Simon & Schuster Company Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form, or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 ISBN 0-13-045253-X Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Dedicated to the memory of my beloved mother, Helen, for her love and encouragement Contents xi Preface PART 1 TRANSPORT PROCESSES: MOMENTUM, HEAT, AND MASS Chapter 1 Introduction to Engineering Principles and Units 1.1 Classification of Unit Operations and Transport Processes 1.2 SI System of Basic Units Used in This Text and Other Systems 1.3 Methods of Expressing Temperatures and Compositions 1.4 Gas Laws and Vapor Pressure 1.5 Conservation of Mass and Material Balances 1.6 Energy and Heat Units 1.7 Conservation of Energy and Heat Balances 1.8 Graphical, Numerical, and Mathematical Methods Chapter 2 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Overall Balances 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fluid Statics 2.3 General Molecular Transport Equation for Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer 2.4 Viscosity of Fluids 2.5 Types of Fluid Flow and Reynolds Number 2.6 Overall Mass Balance and Continuity Equation 2.7 Overall Energy Balance 2.8 Overall Momentum Balance 2.9 Shell Momentum Balance and Velocity Profile in Laminar Flow 2.10 Design Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Pipes 2.11 Compressible Flow of Gases Chapter 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications 3.1 Flow Past Immersed Objects and Packed and Fluidized Beds 3.2 Measurement of Flow of Fluids 3.3 Pumps and Gas-Moving Equipment 3.4 Agitation and Mixing of Fluids and Power Requirements 3.5 Non-Newtonian Fluids 3.6 Differential Equations of Continuity 3.7 Differential Equations of Momentum Transfer or Motion 3.8 Use of Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion 3.9 Other Methods for Solution of Differential Equations of Motion 3.10 Boundary-Layer Flow and Turbulence 3.11 Dimensional Analysis in Momentum Transfer Chapter 4 Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer 4.1 Introduction and Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 4.2 Conduction Heat Transfer 4.3 Conduction Through Solids in Series 4.4 Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors 4.5 Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes 4.6 Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in Forced Convection 4.7 Natural Convection Heat Transfer 4.8 Boiling and Condensation 4.9 Heat Exchangers 4.10 Introduction to Radiation Heat Transfer 4.11 Advanced Radiation Heat-Transfer Principles 4.12 Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids 4.13 Special Heat-Transfer Coefficients 4.14 Dimensional Analysis in Heat Transfer 4.15 Numerical Methods for Steady-State Conduction in Two Dimensions Chapter 5 Principles of Unsteady-State Heat Transfer 5.1 Derivation of Basic Equation 5.2 Simplified Case for Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance 5.3 Unsteady-State Heat Conduction in Various Geometries 5.4 Numerical Finite-Difference Methods for Unsteady-State Conduction 5.5 Chilling and Freezing of Food and Biological Materials 5.6 Differential Equation of Energy Change 5.7 Boundary-Layer Flow and Turbulence in Heat Transfer Chapter 6 Principles of Mass Transfer 6.1 Introduction to Mass Transfer and Diffusion 6.2 Molecular Diffusion in Gases 6.3 Molecular Diffusion in Liquids 6.4 Molecular Diffusion in Biological Solutions and Gels 6.5 Molecular Diffusion in Solids 6.6 Numerical Methods for Steady-State Molecular Diffusion in Two Dimensions Chapter 7 Principles of Unsteady-State and Convective Mass Transfer 7.1 Unsteady-State Diffusion 7.2 Convective Mass-Transfer Coefficients 7.3 Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Various Geometries 7.4 Mass Transfer to Suspensions of Small Particles 7.5 Molecular Diffusion Plus Convection and Chemical Reaction 7.6 Diffusion of Gases in Porous Solids and Capillaries 7.7 Numerical Methods for Unsteady-State Molecular Diffusion 7.8 Dimensional Analysis in Mass Transfer 7.9 Boundary-Layer Flow and Turbulence in Mass Transfer viii Contents
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PART 2 UNIT OPERATIONS Chapter 8 Evaporation 489 8.1 Introduction 489 8.2 Types of Evaporation Equipment and Operation Methods 491 8.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients in Evaporators 493 8.4 Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporators 496 8.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect Evaporators 502 8.6 Condensers for Evaporators 511 8.7 Evaporation of Biological Materials 513 8.8 Evaporation Using Vapor Recompression 514 Chapter 9 Drying of Process Materials 520 9.1 Introduction and Methods of Drying 520 9.2 Equipment for Drying 521 9.3 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity 525 9.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials 533 9.5 Rate of Drying Curves 536 9.6 Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying Period 540 9.7 Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying Period 545 9.8 Combined Convection, Radiation, and Conduction 546 9.9 Heat Transfer in Constant-Rate Period 548 9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow 551 9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers 566 9.11 Freeze Drying of Biological Materials 566 9.12 Unsteady-State Thermal Processing and Sterilization of Biological Materials 569 Chapter 10 Stage and Continuous Gas-Liquid Separation Processes 584 10.1 Types of Separation Processes and Methods 584 10.2 Equilibrium Relations Between Phases 586 10.3 Single and Multiple Equilibrium Contact Stages 594 10.4 Mass Transfer Between Phases 602 10.5 Continuous Humidification Processes 617 10.6 Absorption in Plate and Packed Towers 620 10.7 Absorption of Concentrated Mixtures in Packed Towers 627 10.8 Estimation of Mass Transfer Coefficients for Packed Towers 630 Chapter 11 Vapor-Liquid Separation Processes 640 11.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations 640 11.2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor-Liquid System 642 11.3 Simple Distillation Methods 644 11.4 Distillation with Reflux and McCabe-Thiele Method 652 11.5 Distillation and Absorption Tray Efficiencies 666 11.6 Fractional Distillation Using Enthalpy-Concentration Method 669 11.7 Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures 679 Contents ix Transport Processes and Unit Operations Third Edition Christie J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Unit Operations CHRISTIE J. GEANKOPLIS University of Minnesota Transport Processes and Unit Operations THIRD EDITION Prentice-Hall International, Inc. ISBN 0-13-045253-X This edition may be sold only in those countries to which it is consigned by Prentice-Hall International. It is not to be re-exported and it is not for sale in the U.S.A., Mexico, or Canada. © 1991, 1983, 1978 by P T R Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Simon & Schuster Company Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form, or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 ISBN 0-13-045253-X Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Dedicated to the memory of my beloved mother, Helen, for her love and encouragement Contents xi Preface PART 1 TRANSPORT PROCESSES: MOMENTUM, HEAT, AND MASS Chapter 1 Introduction to Engineering Principles and Units 1.1 Classification of Unit Operations and Transport Processes 1.2 SI System of Basic Units Used in This Text and Other Systems 1.3 Methods of Expressing Temperatures and Compositions 1.4 Gas Laws and Vapor Pressure 1.5 Conservation of Mass and Material Balances 1.6 Energy and Heat Units 1.7 Conservation of Energy and Heat Balances 1.8 Graphical, Numerical, and Mathematical Methods Chapter 2 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Overall Balances 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fluid Statics 2.3 General Molecular Transport Equation for Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer 2.4 Viscosity of Fluids 2.5 Types of Fluid Flow and Reynolds Number 2.6 Overall Mass Balance and Continuity Equation 2.7 Overall Energy Balance 2.8 Overall Momentum Balance 2.9 Shell Momentum Balance and Velocity Profile in Laminar Flow 2.10 Design Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Pipes 2.11 Compressible Flow of Gases Chapter 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications 3.1 Flow Past Immersed Objects and Packed and Fluidized Beds 3.2 Measurement of Flow of Fluids 3.3 Pumps and Gas-Moving Equipment 3.4 Agitation and Mixing of Fluids and Power Requirements 3.5 Non-Newtonian Fluids 3.6 Differential Equations of Continuity 3.7 Differential Equations of Momentum Transfer or Motion 3.8 Use of Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion 3.9 Other Methods for Solution of Differential Equations of Motion 3.10 Boundary-Layer Flow and Turbulence 3.11 Dimensional Analysis in Momentum Transfer Chapter 4 Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer 4.1 Introduction and Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 4.2 Conduction Heat Transfer 4.3 Conduction Through Solids in Series 4.4 Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors 4.5 Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes 4.6 Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in Forced Convection 4.7 Natural Convection Heat Transfer 4.8 Boiling and Condensation 4.9 Heat Exchangers 4.10 Introduction to Radiation Heat Transfer 4.11 Advanced Radiation Heat-Transfer Principles 4.12 Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids 4.13 Special Heat-Transfer Coefficients 4.14 Dimensional Analysis in Heat Transfer 4.15 Numerical Methods for Steady-State Conduction in Two Dimensions Chapter 5 Principles of Unsteady-State Heat Transfer 5.1 Derivation of Basic Equation 5.2 Simplified Case for Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance 5.3 Unsteady-State Heat Conduction in Various Geometries 5.4 Numerical Finite-Difference Methods for Unsteady-State Conduction 5.5 Chilling and Freezing of Food and Biological Materials 5.6 Differential Equation of Energy Change 5.7 Boundary-Layer Flow and Turbulence in Heat Transfer Chapter 6 Principles of Mass Transfer 6.1 Introduction to Mass Transfer and Diffusion 6.2 Molecular Diffusion in Gases 6.3 Molecular Diffusion in Liquids 6.4 Molecular Diffusion in Biological Solutions and Gels 6.5 Molecular Diffusion in Solids 6.6 Numerical Methods for Steady-State Molecular Diffusion in Two Dimensions Chapter 7 Principles of Unsteady-State and Convective Mass Transfer 7.1 Unsteady-State Diffusion 7.2 Convective Mass-Transfer Coefficients 7.3 Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Various Geometries 7.4 Mass Transfer to Suspensions of Small Particles 7.5 Molecular Diffusion Plus Convection and Chemical Reaction 7.6 Diffusion of Gases in Porous Solids and Capillaries 7.7 Numerical Methods for Unsteady-State Molecular Diffusion 7.8 Dimensional Analysis in Mass Transfer 7.9 Boundary-Layer Flow and Turbulence in Mass Transfer viii Contents