Analise de Paisagens e Potencial Turistico em Parques Nacionais do Cerrado - Estudo de Caso

Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16 2018 3137 Supported by Boticario Group Foundation for Nature Protection wwwperspectecolconservcom Research Letters As far as the eye can see Scenic view of Cerrado National Parks Ariane de Almeida Rodrigues a Mercedes Maria da Cunha Bustamante b Edson Eyji Sano c a Programa de PósGraduac ão em Ciências Ambientais Faculdade de Planaltina Universidade de Brasília Brasília DF Brazil b Laboratório de Ecologia de Ecossistemas Departamento de Ecologia Instituto de Ciências Biológicas Universidade de Brasília Brasília DF Brazil c Centro de Sensoriamento Remoto Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis IBAMA Brasília DF Brazil a r t i c l e i n f o Article history Received 28 June 2017 Accepted 17 November 2017 Available online 10 January 2018 Keywords Cultural ecosystem services Savanna Tourism Protected areas Buffer zone Scenic beauty a b s t r a c t Buffer zones around protected areas PA can minimize negative human impacts and stimulate the sus tainable use of natural resources To fulfill these goals it is important to ensure the participation of local communities on resources management and to support local economies Sustainable tourism activities have the potential to reconcile the apparent conflict between protection of nature and socioeconomic benefits but it has not been fully developed in Brazilian PA network The objective of this study is to address opportunities to expand and complement the touristic attractions in areas surrounding eight Cerrado National Parks opened for visitation by taking advantage of their scenic views The analysis was based on remote sensing derived landscape biophysical attributes including three key categories related to visual and ecological qualities and six indicators Results allowed the identification of pro files for the selected parks relating their biophysical characteristics to their main touristic potential Strong hilly topographies in general were associated with wide visual scale and high complexity while flat topographies favor water related recreational services Although focused on National Parks located in the Brazilian Cerrado the study area is representative of tropical ecosystems with relevant species richness and high land conversion pressure 2017 Associac ao Brasileira de Ciˆencia Ecol ogica e Conservac ao Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda This is an open access article under the CC BYNCND license httpcreativecommonsorglicensesby ncnd40 Introduction South America contains one of the most comprehensive pro tected area PA networks in the world with around 25 of its terrestrial area under protection Deguignet et al 2014 There is a trend however of increasing degradation inside and around PAs all over South and Central America Leisher et al 2013 that can lead to the isolation of those areas impairing their capacity to conserve biodiversity One of the strategies to minimize the negative impacts of land conversion is to create buffer zones and ecological corridors that increase PAs connectivity and resilience Hansen and DeFries 2007 Lopoukhine et al 2012 The buffer zone concept was initially conceived to restrict human activities in PAs borders and reduce external disturbances Later it incorpo rated concerns with the human groups affected by the conservation measures Wells and Brandon 1993 Nowadays support from local people is considered a critical aspect to ensure long term conser vation goals Wells and Brandon 1993 Nevertheless it remains Corresponding author Email address arianerodriguesgmailcom A de Almeida Rodrigues a challenge to promote the inclusion of different stakeholders in the decision making processes and to provide alternatives to sus tain the livelihood of PA neighboring communities Vivacqua and Vieira 2005 One of the economic activities that can be developed in the buffer zone in accordance with nature protection is ecotourism derived from cultural ecosystem services CES Beyond the tra ditional goal of biodiversity conservation PAs provide many ecosystem services ES including CES Lopoukhine et al 2012 CES are the intangible benefits that arises from the interac tion between society and the environment MEA 2005 Cultural and social aspects are often neglected because immaterial and intangible dimensions are considered difficult to characterize and measure since high levels of subjectivity are involved in their analyses Chan et al 2012 Even though the importance of CES to societies have increased as the economies grow Guo et al 2010 there are few publications about this theme in Latin America HernándezMorcillo et al 2013 Scenic view is a type of CES included in the group of aesthetic services MEA 2005 Scenic potential or scenic quality expresses the aptitude of the place to provide quality experiences in terms of visual appreciation of the natural scenery to the visitors These httpsdoiorg101016jpecon201711004 25300644 2017 Associac ao Brasileira de Ciˆencia Ecol ogica e Conservac ao Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda This is an open access article under the CC BYNCND license httpcreativecommonsorglicensesbyncnd40 32 A de Almeida Rodrigues et al Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16 2018 3137 Table 1 Concepts visual scale complexity and imageability and indicators viewshed area terrain roughness slope variability Shannon Diversity Index Shannon Evenness Index and drainage density considered in the integration of visual and ecological aspects for landscape metrics analysis The framework was proposed by Fry et al 2009 Concept Definition Dimension Landscape attribute Indicator Estimation method References Visual scale Related to openness what increases visibility associated to human landscape preferences Visibility Topography Proportional viewshed area in percentage Viewshed area inside the park identified from observer points located on the peaks of the external 1 km buffer divided by the park area Schirpke et al 2016 Complexity Refers to the diversity and richness of landscape elements Diversity of landforms Topography Terrain roughness in meters Average standard deviation of the altitude Germino et al 2001 Slope variability in percentage Average difference between maximum and minimum slope Bishop and Hulse 1994 Diversity of land cover Vegetation cover Shannon Diversity Index SDI dimensionless Equals minus the sum across all patch types of the proportional abundance of each patch type multiplied by that proportion based on total landscape area Frank et al 2013 De Vos et al 2016 Shannon Evenness Index SEI dimensionless The observed SDI divided by the maximum SDI for that number of patch types LindemannMatthies et al 2010 Imageability Related to the key visual concepts of sense of place iconographic and uniqueness of a landscape Vividness Water Drainage density in kilometers per square kilometers The total length of all the streams inside the parks limits divided by the total area of the park Wherrett 2000 experiences come from the interaction between the observer and the landscape features In this case landscape refers to the per ceived landscape a space determined by the impression of the observer that involves all human senses especially the vision Alonso et al 2004 Two sets of analytical variables are considered the objective landscape characteristics and the subjective observer perceptions Daniel 2001 Objective approaches focus on environ mental features and aesthetic theories while subjective approaches are based on direct or indirect measures of opinion to qualify scenic beauty according to preferences of individuals or groups Most of the studies combine elements from these two approaches Daniel 2001 There is also a tendency to join aesthetics with ecology defining the scenic potential based on ecological integrity crite ria Daniel 2001 This perspective enriches the multifunctionality of natural environments in agreement with the Brazilian policy to create National Parks intended to protect both biodiversity and scenic beauty as defined by the Federal Law no 9985 of July 18 2000 Scenic view and other CES are also important sources of rev enues In Brazil federal PAs received around 8 million visitors in 2015 contributing with the national economy with estimated 12 billion US dollars Souza 2016 For every one US dollar that the Brazilian government invested about seven US dollars returned to the economy supporting 43602 jobs The numbers indicate that the benefits related to ecotourism exceed the geographical limits of PAs contributing to improve local economies and create direct and indirect jobs in their neighboring areas Souza 2016 Tourism activities however are unevenly distributed among PAs The Brazilian savanna Cerrado is a biodiversity hotspot under threat from the rapid land cover change process with as little as 3 of its area within strictly PAs Franc oso et al 2015 The National Parks located within the Cerrado received approximately 06 million visitors in 2015 Souza 2016 which is only 75 of the total visitors received by all Brazilian federal PAs in the same year Diverse factors such as multiple attractions in the region reputation recreation facilities and population density have been demonstrated to affect the number of visitors in a park Castro et al 2015 Yet the imbalance in the number of tourists among parks needs to be further investigated as well as the unexplored potentials of development of each park Souza 2016 This study aimed to identify opportunities to expand and com plement the touristic attractions in areas surrounding eight Cerrado National Parks opened for visitation ICMBIO 2017 by exploring landscape biophysical aspects of their scenic view National Parks correspond to areas with low anthropogenic impacts Franc oso et al 2015 therefore expected to provide increased levels of ecosystem services Projects to improve ecotourism in the sur roundings of the parks can create opportunities for the engagement of local population in sustainable activities The selected National Parks were Brasilia Cavernas do Peruac u Emas Chapada dos Veadeiros Chapada dos Guimarães Grande Sertão Veredas Serra da Canastra and Serra do Cipó For each park we obtained relevant information about their panoramic view based on objective landscape biophysical attributes Using key cat egories of visual and ecological qualities suggested by Fry et al 2009 we selected indicators related to visual scale complexity and imageability Material and methods The investigation was based on the spatial analysis of remote sensing data that were processed with the support of ArcGIS 1041 geographical information system software Patch Analyst 52 Rempel et al 2012 extension available for the ArcGIS software to estimate landscape metrics and Envi 50 image processing software The analysis was centered in landscape structural characteristics a common feature that integrates visual and ecological aspects of the landscape using three concepts proposed by Fry et al 2009 and six indicators Table 1 Visual scale is a measure of openness and includes characteristics such as area and depth of visibility which are related to the landscape preferences Schirpke et al 2016 In this study visual scale metrics were adopted to identify wider panoramic views of the parks accessible to observers located outside the park Visible areas can be obtained from viewshed analysis Viewshed operations identify cells in rasterbased surfaces potentially visible from an observing point Since there was no specific point of interest the goal was to create a map of best visibility along the borders of the parks Creating the viewshed for every pixel is timeconsuming Rana 2003 and produces many overlapping fields of view since neighboring pixels tend to have similar visibility Kim et al 2004 Then a key issue that arises is how to choose the observer points in order to minimize the processing effort and maximize the field of view Rana 2003 Previous studies about strategies to select observer points demonstrated that topographic position is a key predictor of visibility Kim et al 2004 Rana 2003 Most points of high visibility are located on peaks and ridges because those features tend to be in a geographic position above the nearby points relative elevation Kim et al 2004 Kim et al 2004 found little difference in the visibility when pits or passes were added to peaks as candidate observer points To select the observer points the 30m digital elevation model DEM produced by the NASAs Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission SRTM Farr and Kobrick 2000 was classified in ENVI software using a 7x7 kernel size The classification identified six morphometric classes peak ridge pass plane channel pit and unclassified Ridges occupied a large proportion of the topographic features resulting in an excessive increase of candidate observers with highly redundant viewshed areas as pointed out by Kim et al 2004 Therefore only the peaks were selected as observer points and their polygonal features were converted into points centroids of each polygon Only the points within the 1 km buffer area outside the borders of the parks were considered The number of observing points varied among the parks according to the number of peaks identified Using the selected observer points we carried out the viewshed analysis on the ArcGIS setting the observer eye level at 160 m above the ground and the offset external radius as 10 km The viewshed area into the park was calculated and expressed as percentage of the total area of each park Other biophysical features within the scenic view were also investigated Diversity of vegetation cover and topography complexity have been associated with viewers preferences De Vos et al 2016 Germino et al 2001 The SRTM DEM data were used to obtain the surface roughness and slope variability both indicators of topography complexity Surface roughness in the viewshed area defined as the average standard deviation of elevation for all cells within the visible area was calculated on ArcGIS Slope in percentage was calculated using ENVI and slope variability inside the viewshed area was estimated subtracting the maximum and minimum slope values in a 100x100 cell neighborhood RuszkiczayRüdiger et al 2009 using ArcGIS The analysis of biological diversity within the viewshed area considered differences in the Cerrado vegetation formations as classified by Pinto et al 2009 Three plant physiognomies were distinguished grasslands savannas and forests Since the Brasilia National Park extension was not included in the study conducted by Pinto et al 2009 we employed the land use and land cover map produced by MMA 2015 only in the portion of park that was missing from the previous classification Diversity was calculated through Shannon Diversity Index SDI and Shannon Evenness Index SEI functions available in the Patch Analyst extension for ArcGIS Only natural vegetation cover classes that intersected the viewshed area were considered Another aspect evaluated was the presence of surface water inside the park which is considered an important attractive feature for tourism recreation and scenic view Wherritt 2000 Presence of surface water was accounted using the drainage density parameter which is the total length of the drainage system inside the park by the total area of the park A drainage model was created for an area that included the park and a 10 km surrounding zone We used the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency JAXA Advanced Land Observing Satellite ALOS 30m Digital Surface Model DSM Tadono et al 2014 that was processed by the Hydrology ArcGIS Tools Higher flow cells present higher cell values so that the resulting drainage system only considered streams with more than 500 pixels A visual model of drainage kernel density was also created with ArcGIS using a standard search radius of 35 m minimum default search radius among the study areas resulting in a 30 m cell size raster data We symbolized kernel density matrix with natural breaks jenks to obtain seven classes of drainage density varying from very low to very high Results were normalized to 0100 scale for comparison using the natural data variability for each indicator We also performed a cluster hierarchical analysis including as variables the viewshed proportional area average terrain roughness average slope variability SDI and drainage density The cluster analysis was carried out in RStudio Desktop Version 10136 RStudio Team 2016 using the libraries vegan and labdsv to identify similarities among the parks RStudio is an integrated development environment IDE for R statistical package To run the cluster operations data were previously standardized using 2 method to create the Euclidean distance matrix of dissimilarities Four different clustering methods were tested and Wards minimum variance method resulting dendrogram was selected cophenitic correlation 065 cutoff 03 Results The viewshed area ranged from 109 Grande Sertão Veredas to 476 Serra do Cipó distributed in discontinuous patches along the borders reaching the core areas of the parks in the smallest ones Chapada dos Guimarães and Serra do Cipó see supplementary data Fig S1 Topography complexity indicators slope variability and especially roughness exhibited a wide range of values and high standard deviations Serra da Canastra presented the highest average roughness 11 m 8 while the lowest roughness was observed in Emas and Grande Sertão Veredas 1 m 1 Slope variability was higher in Serra do Cipó 142 69 Serra da Canastra 140 50 and Chapada dos Guimarães 137 69 and lower in Grande Sertão Veredas 23 13 and Emas 24 11 The large variability suggests that the average value is not a good indicator since it may underrepresent much of the natural complexity shown in maps Fig 1 The diversity of vegetation types in the combined viewshed comprises a mosaic of grasslands 175 savannas 685 and forests 140 see supplementary data Fig S2 These percentages are similar to those estimated for the remaining natural vegetation in the entire Cerrado Pinto et al 2009 Sano et al 2010 The viewsheds of Chapada dos Veadeiros and Grande Sertão Veredas were predominantly composed of savannas 87 and 86 respectively and there was a higher proportion of grasslands in the Emas viewshed 50 Chapada dos Guimarães SDI 102 SEI 093 Emas SDI 094 SEI 086 and Brasília SDI 093 SEI 084 presented the highest biodiversity indexes within the viewshed Conversely the lowest indexes were observed in Chapada dos Veadeiros SDI 044 SEI 040 which is covered predominantly by the savanna formations 34 A de Almeida Rodrigues et al Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16 2018 3137 Fig 1 Terrain roughness units in meters inside the viewsheds of the selected National Parks A Brasília National Park B Cavernas do Peruac u National Park C Chapada dos Guimarães National Park D Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park E Emas National Park F Grande Sertão Veredas National Park G Serra da Canastra National Park H Serra do Cipó National Park Drainage density results show an opposite tendency compared to the topography since parks with flat topography tend to accu mulate more water in the soil surface see supplementary data Fig S3 Serra da Canastra exhibited the lowest drainage den sity 085 km km2 Emas and Grande Sertão Veredas presented the highest drainage densities 120 km km2 and 106 km km2 respectively Overall most of the parks showed similar values of drainage density Cluster analysis revealed four groups of parks that are consistent with their topography variability Fig 2 The groups were dis tributed in a gradient from strong wavy Serra da Canastra wavy Chapada dos Guimarães Serra do Cipó and Chapada dos Vead eiros smooth wavy Brasília and Cavernas do Peruac u and smooth Emas and Grande Sertão Veredas Serra da Canastra is dissociated from other wavy parks in a group because its average terrain rough ness 11 m is almost twice higher than the value obtained for the parks with the second highest roughness Serra do Cipó and Cha pada dos Veadeiros 6 m The results revealed varying biophysical profiles associated to each park Fig 3 and supplementary data Figs S4 and S5 and different potentials to attract visitors Discussion Strong wavy topographies in general were associated with wider visual scale and higher landscape complexity This pattern was observed between parks as well as within the regions of the same park Figs 1 and 3 Serra da Canastra however presented a relatively small viewshed area but high slope variability and high terrain roughness Fig 3 It is an extensive park with strong wavy topography and the largest absolute viewshed area 406 km2 Despite that when compared with the total area of the park the viewshed area was not so wide For larger and more circular or regularly shaped parks there is a limitation related to the object of the study itself since our analyses focused on scenic potential around the borders of the park within a viewing distance of 10 km radius The main purpose of this research was to investigate how to reveal the touristic potential that can benefit the surrounding areas Parks with large areas have large inner core areas that fall outside the range of visibility The panoramic views from inside the park including the areas opened for visitors require unavailable infor mation about the existing trails and should be addressed in future A de Almeida Rodrigues et al Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16 2018 3137 35 Fig 2 Dendogram showing four groups of National Parks clustered based on topographic characteristics studies once the data become available Likewise data about the presence of waterfalls and the location of natural attractions were not accessible to be included in this research The spatially explicit approach is critical to identify differences in biophysical patterns within each park The generated maps indicate regions around the parks where visibility of the natural scenery is wider what may turn out to offer complementary tourist attractions in the region contributing to increase the tourist flow Castro et al 2015 Souza 2016 Brasília is an example where increased topography variability occurs in specific areas located in the recently created extension of the park that occurred in 2006 and increased the total area from 300 to 423 km2 The extension includes rough terrain and it is unsuitable for agriculture Braga Braga Netto et al 2005 However it adds ecological and cultural values to the park including low impacted areas habitats with alti tudinal gradients that were underrepresented before waterfalls and Brasílias highest elevation point with a wide viewshed Braga Braga Netto et al 2005 Most importantly the evaluated ecosystem features allowed the creation of profiles for each park with relevant biophysical char acteristics and different aptitudes for tourism Parks with strong wavy topography in general have higher potential to offer scenic experiences from the neighboring areas to the tourists Other wise in parks with smooth relief the natural beauty is mostly accessible from inside the park This is the case of the Cavernas do Peruac u National Park where the most attractive landscape features are the speleological complexes within the park Emas National Park main attractions are also inside the park comprising water recreational activities the phenomenon of the biolumines cence of termite nests and wild animals watching facilitated by the flat reliefs and the dominance of grasslands Overall parks with low scores of topographic complexity exhibited greater aptitude for aquatic recreational activities thanks to the high drainage den sities However the presence of waterfalls that are also natural attractions may be reduced in more plane reliefs This informa tion would help park managers design appropriate strategies to promote sustainable touristic activities From the point of view of public preference considering the number of visitors as a proxy Brasilia National Park stands out from the other parks According to Souza 2016 this park received 294682 visitors in 2015 807 people per day Brasília National Park is located in a large urban area with an estimated population of almost 3 million inhabitants IBGE 2016 and contains natural water pools considered the main attraction of the park Cavernas do Peruac u presented similar biophysical features as the ones found in the Brasília National Park but registered only 2938 visitors in the same period The park is 238 km away from Montes Claros a city in the Minas Gerais State that has an estimated population of 400000 inhabitants IBGE 2016 The comparison between the number of visitors in those two parks shows that factors other than natural features such as distance to large cities and airports logistics promotion and marketing of the park and subjective per ception have decisive influence in visitors preferences Castro et al 2015 De Vos et al 2016 Souza 2016 These findings are coherent with the idea that natural biotic and abiotic factors of ecosystems correspond to the supply side of ecosystem services while asso ciated infrastructure and socioeconomic factors interfere in the demand De Vos et al 2016 The number of visitors however is not a measure of the social value the park holds in its neighboring areas In Brasilia National Park for example there are a number of conflicts related to land use and environmental degradation by urban expansion Tavares and Nakagomi 2016 Challenges related to the management of the Brazilian network of PAs are complex and involve distribution of revenues and governance issues Vivacqua and Vieira 2005 Wells and Brandon 1993 The indicators and methods presented here can complement the analyses based on socioeconomic tourismrelated aspects Souza 2016 with spatially explicit characteristics of the natural environ ment De Vos et al 2016 Although CES research often includes agricultural and built landscapes Dramstad et al 2006 Schirpke et al 2016 the analysis targeting PAs should enhance the interac tion between cultural and ecological values as pointed out by Fry et al 2009 and Gobster et al 2007 Thus the aesthetic and recre ational services can strengthen synergies between social ecological and economic dimensions Conclusions In this study we were able to characterize eight National Parks located in the Cerrado in terms of biophysical properties and tourism opportunities Strong wavy topographies in general were 36 A de Almeida Rodrigues et al Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16 2018 3137 Fig 3 Biophysical profiles of the selected National Parks from the Brazilian Cerrado in terms of five visual and ecological indicators viewshed area terrain roughness slope variability Shannon Evenness Index SEI and drainage density Results were normalized to 0100 scaling factor for comparison purposes Figure includes information relative to the area of each park in km2 and number of visitors reported for 2015 obtained from Souza 2016 associated with wider viewshed and higher landscape complex ity Smooth topographies favor waterrelated recreational services The analysis of the number of visitors reported for each park indi cates the existence of other aspects not associated to the ecosystem features which influence the demand of CES The proposed methods are useful to reveal important bio physical characteristics and map the natural potential supply of scenic view Although this study focused only on National Parks located in the Brazilian Cerrado biome the approach we developed can be extended to other tropical areas domi nated by speciesrich ecosystems under high pressures of land conversion The relationship between park visitation and revenues from this activity have been long investigated in the studies involving tourism and recreation However only recently recreational and touristic aspects have been integrated in the ecosystem service framework Willis 2015 To our knowledge this study is one of the pioneer researches about scenic view applying the ecosystem services framework in Brazil contributing to reduce the research gap on CES in South America Conflicts of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Coordenac ão de Aperfeic oamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior CAPES Brasília DF Brazil We thank the two anonymous reviewers for their comments and contributions to improve this manuscript Appendix A Supplementary data Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version at doi101016jpecon201711004 A de Almeida Rodrigues et al Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16 2018 3137 37 References Alonso MA Maqua MPA Andray AB PrietoLavin TC Gonzalez RMC Castellano GC 2004 Guía para la elaboración de estudios del medio físico contenido y metodología 5th ed Ministerio de Medio Ambiente Secretaría General del Medio Ambiente Madrid Bishop ID Hulse DW 1994 Prediction of scenic beauty using 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