Resumo - Technology Management - a Brief Review Of The Last 40 Years And Some Thought On Its Future - Inovação e Tecnologia 2023-2

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Faculdade de Administração e Ciências Contábeis Departamento de Contabilidade Disciplina: ACC 602 - Gestão da Tecnologia e Inovação Período: 2023-2 Prof. Dr. Pierre Ohayon Aluno (a): XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX DRE: 123456789 Leitura 5 REISMAN, Arnold. Technology management: A brief review of the last 40 years and some thoughts on its future. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, v. 41, n. 4, p. 342-346, 1994. Rio de Janeiro 2023 O artigo, intitulado "Gestão de Tecnologia: Uma Breve Revisão dos Últimos 40 Anos e Algumas Reflexões sobre o Futuro" de Arnold Reisman, aborda o significativo progresso na educação em engenharia e gestão de tecnologia ao longo das últimas quatro décadas. Inicialmente, havia apenas alguns programas de concessão de diplomas, principalmente no nível de mestrado, mas o número cresceu para mais de 100 nos Estados Unidos e 54 no exterior. A pesquisa em várias revistas dedicadas à gestão de tecnologia também prosperou, com temas que vão desde aplicações de OMS até preocupações mais amplas, como transferência de tecnologia. O autor enfatiza a necessidade de um esforço abrangente para classificar e codificar o progresso da pesquisa em gestão de tecnologia, distinguindo entre estudos teóricos e aqueles baseados em configurações do mundo real. A prática da gestão de tecnologia, conforme o artigo argumenta, ocorre no contexto de unidades organizacionais em diversos setores, impactando e sendo impactada por assuntos mundiais, política e economia. Ao examinar os últimos 40 anos, o artigo explora a influência de eventos históricos, como a Segunda Guerra Mundial e a Guerra Fria, na gestão de tecnologia. Os impactos positivos e negativos em setores como aço, automotivo e aeroespacial são discutidos, destacando as dinâmicas em constante mudança das indústrias durante esse período. O autor aprofunda-se em exemplos específicos da Acme Cleveland e da indústria do aço para ilustrar as complexidades e desafios enfrentados por empresas que gerenciam tecnologia durante mudanças econômicas. Olhando para o futuro, o artigo considera o futuro da gestão de tecnologia, prevendo tendências que moldarão o campo. A privatização em antigos países do COMECON, preocupações ambientais e mercados emergentes na Rússia e na China são identificados como fatores que influenciarão as práticas de gestão de tecnologia. O artigo antecipa uma mudança em direção a mais colaboração e consórcios em projetos de grande escala, enfatizando a necessidade de cooperação transnacional. As implicações para a pesquisa em gestão de tecnologia são abordadas, enfatizando a importância da pesquisa de políticas, abordagens interdisciplinares e a necessidade de a academia se adaptar ao cenário em constante mudança. O autor defende uma abordagem holística para a educação em gestão de tecnologia, incentivando a inclusão de experiências de resolução de problemas do mundo real e uma compreensão ampla de contextos internacionais. Em conclusão, o artigo fornece uma visão abrangente da evolução da gestão de tecnologia ao longo dos últimos 40 anos, examinando suas raízes históricas, desafios atuais e perspectivas futuras. Por meio de exemplos e análises, o autor enfatiza a necessidade de adaptabilidade, colaboração e uma perspectiva global para navegar na paisagem em constante mudança da gestão de tecnologia. Portland State University Engineering Management Program P. O. Box 751 Portland, OR 97207-0751 September 1, 1993 Dear Colleague: We are conducting a worldwide study on the educational and research characteristics of Engineering and Technology Management (ETM) programs. It will be the fifth study in a series of longitudinal studies that we have been conducting since the mid-1970s. Alfredo Sandoval, a Ph.D. student in our program, will help me in this study. Engineering and Technology Management is exhibiting a very strong growth pattern. Twenty-four universities were offering degree programs in 1976. That figure reached 108 in 1990. Since then, many other educational institutions have developed new programs. Various titles are used for the programs. “Engineering Management” is the most common title, with “Technology Management” and “Management of Technology” getting increasingly more usage. The field is developing its identity in two dimensions: the “life cycle” dimension and the “systems” dimension. The first dimension covers the entire spectrum of technical activities throughout the technological life cycle including innovation, basic research, applied research, development, design, implementation, testing, marketing, maintenance, and transfer of technology. The second dimension is superimposed on the technological life cycle and consists of six subsystems: 1. Human Subsystem (Management of Engineers and Scientists) 2. Project Subsystem (Management of Engineering and R&D Projects) 3. Organizational Subsystem (Management of Technical Organizations) 4. Resource Subsystem (Management of Critical Resources) 5. Technology Subsystem (Management of Existing and Emerging Technologies) 6. Strategy Subsystem (Strategic Management of Technology and its interfaces with other systems) The objective of this study is to update the information on educational and research programs in ETM and to determine the strategic directions, commonalities and differences among them. We expect that the database developed in this effort will enhance the field and contribute to its strategic direction. Enclosed you will find a list of the educational programs in 1990 and an initial inquiry form to identify the contact persons to be included in our survey. We will appreciate it if you please return the self-addressed inquiry form within two weeks. Sincerely, Dundar F. Kocaoglu Professor and Director Phone: (503) 725-4660 FAX: (503) 725-4667 BITNET: d6cmp@psuorvn INTERNET: d6cmp@psuorvn.cc.pdx.edu IEEE TRANSACTIONS Technology Management: A Brief Review of the Last 40 Years and Some Thoughts on Its Future Arnold Reisman Invited Paper I. INTRODUCTION DURING the last 40 years, much progress has been made in engineering and technology management education. We have gone from a handful of degree-granting programs, mostly at the master's level, such as those at UCLA, Pittsburgh, Case Western, and the Rensselaer Institutes of Technology, to over 100 in the US alone and another 54 abroad [15]. Clearly, much research has been reported on over the four decades in such journals as IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, and the International Journal of Technology Management, which are dedicated to technology management, as well as in related journals such as Journal of Information and Technology Management, Operations Research, Management Science, and IIE Transactions. It will take a major effort to classify this research precisely across functional lines such as was done for technology transfer [20] or even by some of the specific research areas such as the work concerned with OR/MS applications in the library field [28]. Such an effort is timely and well worth doing. It would also be instructive to codify real leads as to whether it was based on, or grounded in, real-world settings or whether it was purely theoretical in nature as was done by Reisman and Kirchnick [26]. Education and research are clearly the inputs to the practice of technology management. This third dimension is by far the most interesting one, and it is practice which will most of the rest of this paper will concern itself. The practice of technology management clearly does not take place in a vacuum. It takes place in design offices, research and/or testing laboratories, hospital radiology departments, computer rooms, and on plant floors. Each of these represent organizational units of larger enterprises, government agencies, and not-for-profit and/or service-sector institutions. Lastly, these entities operate in the more general economy which is impacted by world affairs, politics and economics [22]. It is difficult to address the last 40 years of engineering and technology management without reflecting on this larger context. It is even harder to prognosticate the future of this Manuscript received November 1994. Review of this manuscript was processed by E. D. F. Kocaoglu. The author is with Case Western Reserve University, Department of Operations Research, Cleveland, OH 44106–7235 USA. IEEE Log Number 9404978. 0018-9391/94$04.00 © 1994IEEE REISMAN: TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT: A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LAST 40 YEARS by the decade of the 1950’s, companies in these industries were no longer managed by their founding fathers nor even by their sons or daughters. They were managed by professionals with little or no stake in the company’s long-term health and whose tenure in office was directly related to short-term profitability. Publicly held, these companies were, to say the least, closely watched and at the mercy of Wall Street, where the concern for the fundamentals of a company, e.g., its products, its management, and its plant, was giving way to the bottom-line numbers watchers. The above will be illustrated best by a discussion of two Cleveland-based companies. According to its 1986 Annual Report, Acme Cleveland is a leading maker of designs, manufactures, and markets equipment and services including: machine tools, cutting and threading tools, telecommunications products, electrical and electronic controls and sensors, quality-control equipment and systems, and related replacement parts and service. This company, which has roots in the 19th century, made a decision in 1986 to discontinue its Systems Division business consisting of contract engineering services, factory-automation machine equipment, and advanced manufacturing systems. This was done even though the long-term potential for this business appeared to be attractive. “It became apparent that larger commitments for market and product developments were required than we cared to make,” according to its CEO at the time [3]. Also, in its 1986 annual report and over its CEO’s signature, Acme Cleveland makes the following statement: “Acme’s current Aesop’s market for new machines remains severely depressed. More, and more domestic and foreign companies are vying for fewer orders. Nothing we see suggests any improvements on the near future. The division’s major strategic thrust is focused on replacement parts, tooling and service for the several thousand of operating National Acme machines currently in use. We are convinced that the success of this strategy will offset some of the shortfalls in our machine orders” [3]. Moreover, long-term investments in its production processes seemed nonexistent. Incidentally, the CEO at the time, Dr. Charles Ambrose, holds an MBA from Harvard, has spent several years as partner-in-charge of the Cleveland office of McKinsey and Co., and served as CEO of Reliance Electric at the time of its sale to Exxon. The next illustration is from the steel industry, American steel-making technology was given away under the Marshall Plan to war-ravaged countries, especially so in rebuilding Germany. Much of this technology, such as continuous casting, is just now, 50 years later, being introduced by American steel producers. Specifically, after coming out of Chapter 11 bankruptcy and with much fanfare, LTV Steel announced its introduction of continuous casting in a Cleveland plant. According to Cleveland’s Mayor Michael R. White, “Today’s start-up of LTV Steel’s new continuous caster and steel rolling operation signifies another major step forward for Cleveland steel producer” [16]. This plant, incidentally, was first built around 1959 for Olin Iron and Steel, which was purchased in 1942 by J&L Steel which, in turn, was bought by the LTV Corporation in 1974 and merged with Republic Steel in 1984 to become LTV Steel [31]. To put things into perspective, we digress here for a bit to look at the history of continuous casting of steel. The first patents on this process were awarded in Germany in 1889 to R. M. Dalen and in the US to S. Junghans in 1938 [14]. Since then, the chronology of events leading to the implementation of continuous casting has been dominated by innovations in Europe, the former USSR, Great Britain, Japan, and Canada, but not the United States [14]. It was the combination of such externalities and negative influences that tended to downplay top management’s need for technological innovation both in product and in process redesign and hence on technology management within their enterprise structures. At the same time, during these four decades we have seen Japan and later Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea transform their industrial sectors from cottage industries producing cheap, low quality, small, consumer items to being major competitors in high-tech products and serving the markets of the world at large. In some respects they have also outpaced us in using high-tech production processes. “While US factories have approximately 46,000 robots on the job, Japan has about 350,000” [4]. We have also witnessed Israel develop from a fledgling nation enlarging major populations and subsisting basically on agriculture and/or foreign aid to a point where they are now integrating major populations from Russia and Ethiopia but also are major players in high-tech product development and export [5], [7]. We all know the saga of Detroit when smaller, more efficient automobiles from Europe, Japan, and South Korea were beginning to flood American highways and parking lots. The fall of the Berlin Wall, the breakup of the USSR, and with it the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) empire and its influence on Third World countries, have already and profoundly affected the world and the US economy and with it the companies and the government agencies that are the umbrella organizations for technology management in practice. Clearly, all this aided the kind of technology that was being managed and the manner of managing it. The last five years have been full of stories of base closings, company downsizing, government contract cancellations or non-renewals, contractions abroad (as in the case of the Linear Accelerator), division selloffs, mergers and, in some cases, acquisitions. During the last presidential campaign, we have seen a great debate take place on deficit reduction. The questions were not how much, but how, where, and when the cuts will take place. In the past 40 years, several different project justification methodologies have come into and out of fashion. The traditional discounted cash flow analysis methods of engineering economy have given way at times to PPBS, zero-base budgeting, cost/benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses, etc. Throughout time, however, the short payback method has been and, unfortunately for the long-term health of our economy and that of the enterprises which rely on it, is still with us. III. THE FUTURE Predicting the future is always a risky business unless, of course, one has the prowess or is clever enough in choosing 344 the subject matter to be predicted, as was the case with the Oracle of Delphi [18]. However, there are a number of trends, already discernible, that will impact the magnitude and the format of technology management practice. * The countries of COMECON are now privatizing many of their state enterprises. These enterprises are hungry for Western technology both in product and in process. Russia and the People's Republic of China are rich in resources; they have a highly trained technical work force and a vast potential market. All the countries which once comprised the USSR, and especially Russia, will in great likelihood “put their act together” in the next decade as is happening in Hungary and in Poland. When this happens, the implications for transnational business are enormous and with it, of course, are the implications for technology management. * Concerns for the environment, for individual health, and for personalizing work and leisure-time activities will increase in magnitude and latitude worldwide. This will influence what technologies will be developed and how they will be developed and implemented. Recycling of waste products, mass transit, use of renewable resources are but some examples of technologies that are on the rise. * The emerging peace process in the Middle East will open up markets for civilian high-tech products while, at the same time, ending a major distinction for defense hardware. * The same companies, which now include the giants in automobiles, will, in greater likelihood, rely not the smaller and medium-sized corporations for product or process innovations. As needed, the technology producers will be vendors, who will be acquired only or be jointly ventured with. This trend is already taking place in telecommunications, computers, and the automotive suppliers. As an example, TRW announced the acquisition of Roehwald & Driesern GmbH located in Raschwerken near Hanover, Ger- many, in February 1990. The company specializes in the design and manufacture of plastic injection tools primarily for the automotive industry’ [28]. Also, in a June 7, 1990, news release, the TRW Company announced the acquisition of 76% interest in Elektro-Automaton, a German automotive electronics company, which is a designer and manufacturer of switches, relays, and electronic control modules [30]. This phenomenon is not unidirectional in terms of crossing national boundaries, as evidenced by the following news quote: “Elbit, the electronic and imaging systems maker (an Israeli firm), will acquire California-based Diasonics Ultrasound for more than $70 m in cash. The purchase is to be finalized at Diasonics’s annual shareholders meeting in September, after which it will become a wholly owned Elbit subsidiary” [17]. For large projects such as the new generation civilian aircraft, in order to minimize both the risk and the cost of R&D, technology management will take place in the setting of various kinds of consortia. Some of these con- sortia may involve foreign enterprises. For example, " in March 1986, Boeing and three aerospace companies entered into an understanding to pursue the development of a 150-seat airplane known as the 7J7”' [8]. Also, according to L. W. Clarkson, Boeing’s vice president for Planning and International Development: “Boeing Aircraft has been visiting facilities in the CIS (former USSR) for some time—and they’ve sent representa- tives to [Boeing]… The CIS aviation industry has a lot to offer firms from abroad. They have valuable expertise in metallurgy, composites, computational fluid dynamics, and supersonic transport technology” [11]. John McDonnell, the CEO of another major aircraft manufacturer, McDonnell Douglas Co., summarized it all for this industry sector when he said, “…it comes down to the fact that wider global participation is essential if the industry is to muster all the technological and financial resources required for the development of new aircraft” [13]. An excellent example of the consortial phenomenon in the telecommunications sector is provided by the following quote: “Motorola Inc.’s Iridium project has received a major boost with the announcement that a consortium of Japanese companies will invest Y 15 billion ($131.2 million) in the project. The companies are scheduled to formally establish Iridium Japan on April 27 to manage their participation in the venture and double the capital within a year” [12]. * In order to secure markets outside the U.S., more and more of the technology involved in the development, as well as production of the project, will have to be shared as wider protection. This sharing goes beyond current practices which sees wider reciprocity (Barter and Countertrade) and technology transfer components [22]. IV. IMPLICATION FOR TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT RESEARCH As we have noted at the outset, engineering and technology management curricula have grown in numbers from a handful 40 years ago to over 150 worldwide. Fig. 1 shows the exponen- tial growth over time of programs currently in existence. In academic circles, engineering and technology management has or it is taking on the aura of a professional discipline. In this lie many opportunities for growth and development but also many traps. Abbott [1], who studied the history and the sociology of classical professions such as medicine, law and the clergy as well as many more modern professional disciplines, such as operations research/management science (OR/MS), concludes that there is a natural tendency toward "professional regression where a small professional elite core maintains intellectual control over a much wider jurisdiction." 345 Fig 1. Growth of engineering ad technology management programs. RESMAN . TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT: A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LAST 40 YEARS Typically, these are the academic members of the profession. In OR/MS this tendency was also referred to as "natural drift’" and “devolution” [2], [26]. Editorial boards, especially of the journals that are dedicated to technology management, have a responsibility to seek out and to encourage submission of articles that are ground [...] in real-world settings, that discuss implemented solutions to problems in technical organizations, and/or use real-world data [26], [27]. While additional good real-world oriented research in specific areas of technology management must be encouraged, it is also necessary to do some meta research, or research on research. Using various taxonomic approaches, one can formulate the technology management knowledge of each research will facilitate the work of practitioners by vividly and effectively showing the similarities, the differences and the interactions between various studies. By showing the results of such research will facilitate the teaching and the learning of the subject matter after it has been so classified and so organized [20]. Journal editorial boards must view the technology management paradigm, if indeed there is one, with flexibility and as an evolving rather than fixed phenomenon. This must allow for technology management to surface in a diversity of sectors, e.g., in providing health care services as well as in the R&D of high-tech diagnostic equipment [23]. It must allow for uses of inputs from a multitude of disciplines, e.g., from organizational theory as well as from operations research or statistics. It must allow for inputs, if appropriate, from nontraditional fields of practice, in the academic sense. A good example is Barter and Countertrade [20]. It violates many of the Western tenets of economics, it is never or nowhere taught, yet it is widely practiced [24], [25], especially in the management of transnational technologies [22]. It is better to err on the side of inclusion of subject matter in the universe of technology management as opposed to exclusion. V. IMPLICATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT EDUCATION In addition to being technically competent and business-practice oriented, future managers of technology will have to [...] to be more worldly. They should have a working knowledge of at least one foreign language. For someone starting out I would recommend Chinese, Russian, or Spanish in that order because these are emerging as major markets for and sources of technological innovation, and they are spoken in countries where English capability is not as widespread as it is in Western Europe, the Middle East, and/or Africa. In addition to language skills, a knowledge of historical and social factors which influence business policy and practices are useful. In recognition of the fact that technology management is going transnational, IEEE Transaction on Engineering Man agement is dedicating a special issue to articles dealing with international R&D. Clearly, the International Journal of Tech nology Management recognizes the fact that in addition to there are also multinational sectors in place in various lands, To the extent that technological innovation, especially in the civilian sector, will spring forward from upstart and small companies, technical managers must be or learn to be risk takers and business generalists. Engineering and technology management educators must and will teach the tools, skills and techniques for analysis of technology management problems. This is necessary but not sufficient. They must also address the collection and use of the facts and combine all this with creativity and wisdom in synthesis of knowledge in the research on and teaching Part of the engineering technology management systems [21]. The curriculum must involve the student in the "actual-hcrnndce of front-line” practice [1] before allowing one to specialize and especially to enter the academic side of technology management training in some specialty. One of the worst things to happen to the future of technology management is to allow into its teaching ranks individuals who obtained a Ph.D. in engineering or in technology management programs, research, etc., only while never having faced real-world problems in real-world institutions. A partial answer to this may well lie in the development and use of expert-systems type software to help teach skills for diagnosing major problem arenas in technology management. This approach is already being used in various curricula to teach medical diagnosis to undergraduate medical students [6], [9], 10]. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author is indebted to Mr. Fernando Rivera of the Portland State University graduate program in Engineering Management for creating the graph. 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Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Faculdade de Administração e Ciências Contábeis Departamento de Contabilidade Disciplina: ACC 602 – Gestão da Tecnologia e Inovação Período: 2023-2 Prof. Dr. Pierre Ohayon Aluno (a): XXXXXXXXXXXXXX DRE: 123456789 Exemplo Leitura 14a UTTERBACK, J.M. A Dinâmica da Inovação na Indústria. In: Dominando a Dinâmica da Inovação, Capítulo 1, p. 1-23, Rio de Janeiro: Qualitymark, 1996. Rio de Janeiro Data