Cooperativas como Sistemas Adaptativos Complexos - Uma Análise Detalhada

131 DOI 104324978100344985012 9 COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATIONS AS COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS Caio Silva 1 Introduction As organizations in the plural sector Mintzberg 2015 cooperatives stand out for their princi ples and overarching values that enable members to be simultaneously investors patrons owners and part of the benefitted community Limnios et al 2018 For Levi and Davis 2008 coop eratives are the enfants terribles of economics being both economically oriented enterprises and nonprofit organizations see also Chapter 3 by Thibault Mirabel The paradox of economic and social or individualistic and collectivistic goals has been addressed by scholars interested in cooperatives through a dualityhybridity lens Novkovic et al 2022 Ashforth and Reingen 2014 see also Chapter 15 by Anu Puusa This chapter examines this paradoxical nature through a complexity science perspective positioning cooperative organizations as complex adaptive sys tems CAS CAS are the interaction of a large number of diverse agents Holland 2012 p 53 An expan sion of this definition includes characteristics such as agency and agent interactions that enable adaptability emergence and feedback loops These characteristics make CAS wellsuited to sur vive in turbulent uncertain and complex environments in the long term Cilliers 1998 From beehives to economic systems the CAS framework Turner and Baker 2019 has been employed to understand agent behavior that leads to adaptation and change Carmichael and Hadžikadić 2019 In organizations CAS perspectives include studies on leadership Schneider and Somers 2006 UhlBien 2021 human resource development Yawson 2013 and plural organizations Pycroft and WolfBranigin 2016 Pinheiro and Young 2017 Oliveira and Cunha 2021 This chapter positions cooperative organizations as CAS to enable a different understand ing see Novkovic et al 2023 of cooperative management organizational theory and eco nomics As CAS cooperatives adapt through selforganization Ashby 1991 considering the systems in which they exist and the pressures exerted by the environment The CAS perspective necessitates different methodologies for understanding cooperatives and inaugurates perspec tives that go beyond paradox and dualities in leading and managing A configurational approach Misangyi et al 2017 Täuscher 2018 Greckhamer et al 2018 derived from settheoretical principles is offered and illustrated in different elements related to the main CAS tenets includ ing self organization adaptability and heterogeneity Such an approach enables researchers to This chapter has been made available under a CCBYNCND 40 license Caio Silva 132 simultaneously reap the benefits of qualitative granularity and detail while providing a robust avenue for generalization and transposition to other cases 2 Cooperative organizations Cooperative members own control and benefit from the business conducted by the aggregate The Guidance Notes from the International Cooperative Alliance ICA 2015 provide a minimal struc ture of cooperative principles that ideally govern the structure and actions of cooperatives around the globe These principles highlight the cooperative ideal and generate the complexity that these organizations need to embrace in their operations Ring and Van de Ven 1992 The challenges of cooperative governance have been studied from many different perspectives The free rider problem Giannakas et al 2016 shows how cooperatives are vulnerable to agents who do not contribute but reap the benefits of the contributions of other agents In large coopera tives the control problem Borgen 2004 emerges when members feel they have little influence over decisions and therefore cannot feel and act like owners and controllers questioning whether the cooperative organizational form is different from a corporate one While universal solutions are not available it is possible to theoretically examine how cooperative governance could miti gate these and broader challenges Cornforth 2004 has suggested a paradox perspective to extend corporate governance theories to cooperative governance noting that the prevailing model of theorization on governance relies on neoclassical economics which falls short of explaining cooperative behavior Spear 2004 builds upon stewardship theory to propose a trustee model of governance arguing that there is in effect the danger of overempowering cooperative managers and showing that members have weak influence over boards and management thus questioning the representation of members and the democratic process in consumeruser cooperatives Finally Mazzarol et al 2018 provided a business model for cooperative and mutual organizations conciliating several theories into an instrument that enables practitioners to better understand cooperative governance operation and its member value propositions 3 Cooperatives as complex adaptive systems Understanding cooperative organizations as CAS requires the premise that they are capable of constant adaptation and evolution According to Letiche and Lissack 2011 CAS are emergently coherent focusing on the environment to become resilient rather than acting as efficient machines CAS accommodate many agents who simultaneously follow rules and adjust actions according to the behavior of other agents interacting and adapting to continuously support the system and the population it contains Stacey and Mowles 2016 Cooperatives are organizations formed by a network of interrelated individuals whose agency is enacted based on local interactions and overarching rules Such interactions give rise to pat terns of organizational behavior that are unpredictable from the individual agent standpoint As agents learn and adapt to the environment the organizations patterns of behavior change causing the system to evolve The complexity inherent in cooperatives operations makes it difficult for researchers to understand causal directions and establish robust networks of influence between practices and outcomes In this chapter I propose that cooperatives fit the CAS characterization by building upon Cilliers 1998 typology of CAS characteristics Table 91 illustrates how cooperatives act as CAS according to their theoretical definition divided into four main features dynamic adaptation Cooperative organizations as complex adaptive systems 133 emergent behavior learning and evolution and diverse and localized information The argument assumes that cooperatives act as dynamic entities composed of individual members who inter act based on local rules and individual preferences which are constantly changing with the eco nomic and social environments The members interact and make collective decisions based on new imperatives that culminate in changes to the structure and governance of the cooperative Cooperatives embody CAS tenets due to their unique membercentric structures and strate gic dynamics Unlike investororiented corporations the resilience and adaptability achieved by cooperatives have roots in decentralized decisionmaking with the input of a diverse base of membership and control As Cornforth 2004 notes organizational theory explains controlbased onedimensional theories which are unable to cope with cooperative complexity Cooperatives are riddled with paradox mostly generated by their dual nature see Chapter 15 by Anu Puusa facing tensions in their controlling mechanisms through member representation and management experts concerned with their performance conformance to cooperative principles and market rules and both the support and control of governing boards Table 91 Features definitions and illustrations of cooperatives as CAS CAS cooperative feature Theoretical definition Illustration Dynamic Adaptation Interaction Feedback Loops Open Systems The interaction of members shapes collective behavior and outcomes through recurrent adaptation to internal and external changes Bottomup adaptive strategies are enacted by farmers in agroindustrial cooperatives collectively building on individual learning to seize opportunities and hinder threats Emergent Behavior Emergence Nonlinearity Local interactions follow a nonlinear path to generate emergent macro initiatives by the cooperative based on trust and mutual support In the emergence of credit unions fiduciary duties between members are not merely summative but follow a nonlinear path toward the emergence of the formal organization The principle of intercooperation enhances cooperative potential to generate emergent endeavors Learning and Evolution Adaptation SelfOrganization Evolution The principle of education leads to adaptation to environmental needs and a regard to future evolution and sustainability Since education is distributed adaptation is likely achieved through selforganization Through trial and error accumulated over time and with the help of adequate training and support medical cooperatives providing healthcare insurance develop capabilities to be sustainable offering advantages for both physicians and customerpatients Diverse and Localized Information Heterogeneity Decentralization As decentralized organizations cooperatives nurture diverse sources of information regarding local operations Diverse agents operate based on local information enabling a range of solutions in response to challenges and opportunities A worker cooperative has in each member a distinct set of knowledge and experiences which can be aggregated to collaboratively devise solutions for other members increasing adaptation and agility Caio Silva 134 In addition to the control complexity cooperatives may have different ownership rights and membership structures yet still need to comply with a minimal set of universal cooperative principles According to Mazzarol et al 2018 cooperatives maximize member benefits through understanding their roles as suppliers customers investors owners and members of the com munity all potentially embodied in a single agent The cooperative goal is to generate societal wellbeing while financial returns are reinvested distributed or invested in the community In contrast investorowned firms enjoy the simplicity of having welldefined roles for each agent and a welldefined goal of maximizing shareholder returns through dividends and interest on capital Finally cooperatives behave as welfare organizations in generating social transformation in addition to economic development Michaud and Audebrand 2022 Members who would be denied a voice in investorowned organizations or treated on a onedimensional basis eg as either a supplier or a customer find their emancipation in cooperative organizations as complete members and decisionmakers 4 Research methods for cooperatives as CAS Complex adaptive systems research has suffered from a chasm between quantitative modelbased methods and qualitative case studies and ethnographies Thietart and Forgues 2011 Maguire et al 2006 see also Ragin 2008 Cilliers 1998 Quantitative research on CAS is rigorous and relevant for the pursuit of general laws that govern such systems as illustrated by the agentbased and system dynamics models such as the NK model Kauffman 1993 and broader computational models Ethiraj and Levinthal 2009 On the other hand qualitative research on CAS tends to provide muchneeded nuance regarding specific and local events Gear et al 2018 such as in Davis and Sumaras 2006 treatise on complexity and education and in Chiles et als 2004 study of emergence According to Richardson et al 2001 complexity theory answers to the call for pluralism creativity and boundary critique by relying on both intraperspective and interperspective explo ration of phenomena As democratic as cooperatives complexity science addresses the limits of knowledge when epistemologies and methodologies define the characteristics of the systems we study Biggiero 2001 While there is a plethora of avenues for understanding complexity in organizations this chapter focuses on the integrative methodology offered by configurations It explores the middle ground between quantitative and qualitative methods by proposing configura tional research as a method capable of providing both generalizability and local sensitivity to the study of CAS Figure 91 41 Configurational methods Derived from settheoretic approaches Fiss 2007 configurational methods capture patterns and configurations across cases leveraging the qualitative potentials of generalization Arguably grouping qualitative data into categories diminishes its contextual sensitivity in the name of higher generalizability as shown in Figure 91 Configurational methods are therefore suited for middlerange theories simultaneously valuing casespecific knowledge and leveraging configura tions that give rise to certain organizational outcomes It is important to note that configurational methods are not dismissive of qualquant approaches Rather they integrate elements of both by using qualitative data to inform quantitative patterns of causality They contribute to methodologi cal pluralism Mingers 2001 by offering a balance between qualitative local sensitivity and quan titative generalization potential Ragin 2008 allowing researchers to consider both the context and the wider applicability of configurations Cooperative organizations as complex adaptive systems 135 The configurational approach does not come without shortcomings The quantification of quali tative data may risk oversimplifying nuance and detail therefore neglecting the intricate dynamics of qualitative studies Lucas and Szatrowski 2014 There may also be concerns about whether the generalizability of configurations can be achieved through a method based on case diversity representation A key factor in configurational research is therefore the balance between qualita tive depth and sample size as pointed out by Miller 2018 who highlighted the importance of effectively grounding configurations in qualitative data Finally some argue that the approach con tradicts methodological purity and dilutes the advantages of qualitative and quantitative research making it too thin to reconcile diverse epistemological standpoints Guba and Lincoln 1994 Despite the possible shortcomings the configurational methodology attempts to understand organizations as composed of interconnected structures and practices Fiss 2007 departing from a holistic approach Such holism is essential for understanding organizations as CAS Furnari et al 2021 Letiche and Lissack 2011 Instead of conceiving organizational outcomes as simple causeeffect relationships configurational methods enable researchers to delve into the complexi ties of causality and nonlinearity while striving to establish relationships between constructs that are essential for generating outcomes Fiss 2007 highlights the power of configurational methods to underscore equifinality Katz and Kahn 1978 where different organizational configurations may lead to the same or similar outcomes 42 Example application of configurations to cooperatives Cooperatives as hybrid organizations blend market and hierarchical elements eg separated and joint ownership and varied incentive structures along with a mixture of formal and informal governance Chaddad 2012 Configurational methods can reveal how these elements combine to reach equilibrium Additionally as Thibault Mirabel highlights in Chapter 3 of this volume Figure 91 Positioning configurational methods Caio Silva 136 the unique role of trust in cooperatives transforming contracts into treaties governing capital and labor makes them particularly suited for configurational analysis For this application to be successful researchers must first identify the operating conditions of cooperative organizations For example sets of Boolean attributes may be devised arguing that cooperatives A are a subset of organizations that exhibit high financial Y and social Z perfor mance formally A Y Z Configurational approaches allow scholars to understand relation ships within larger organizational sets In this example this may involve examining the overlap between actions adhering to educational principles B and benchmarking with private sector organizations C Let adherence to educational principles B belong to a subset of cooperatives 1 A exhibiting high financial and social performance Formally 1 B A where represents the belong to operator Further 1 A may be a subset of organizations with high financial and social performance as in A Y Z 1 where represents a subset of and represents the intersec tion indicating common elements between sets Conversely benchmarking with private sector firms C belongs to 2 A characterized by high financial performance but not necessarily high social performance This relationship is symbolized as 2 C A and A2 Y It is important to note that 1 A and 2 A are different subsets of A representing cooperatives with different configurations of financial and social performance We still consider A as the union of both cooperative subsets A A A 1 2 where denotes the union operator Actions regarding education B and benchmarking C indirectly belong to set A and the performance characteristics of subsets 1 A and 2 A contribute to the overall characteristics of A Logically then B A C A B A C A A Y Z A Y A A A 1 2 1 2 1 2 This expression states that educational principles B and benchmarking C belong to the union set of cooperatives A making subsets 1 A and 2 A maintain their relationships with financial performance Y and social performance Z A Venn diagram representing these relationships is plotted in Figure 92 This example portrays a smallscale potential of configurational theorization in cooperative organization management By employing configurations researchers may establish conditions on macro meso and micro levels of institutional structures market behavior and cooperative practices Figure 92 Venn diagram of Boolean expression Cooperative organizations as complex adaptive systems 137 to cumulatively build robust theorization efforts understanding the different set memberships and relationships generating outcomes Configurations offer robust and flexible pathways for researching the complexity of coop erative economics and management the scoping stage in Furnari et al 2021 The robustness of the method entails accumulating evidence throughout studies and cases while the flexibility of the method arises from the researchers choice of focusing in or out and choosing between crisp or fuzzy sets For simplicity in the example above cases were grouped under the label of cooperatives employing crisp sets which denote binary distinctions about membership in subsets Quant researchers may prefer to deploy crisp sets derived from statistical data establishing binary relationships between constructs which can yield complex and insightful results with more variables and cases However qualitative researchers who want to focus on nuance and multilevel explanations Miller 2018 may find it uncomfortable to conform to crisp distinctions Therefore they may prefer to employ fuzzy sets Ragin 2000 Kumar et al 2022 for an overview which allow for nuance by including intermediate thresholds between 0 and 1 Following the latter exam ple cooperatives adherence to educational principles may be either full 1 or noncompliance 0 in crisp sets but they may also have little 025 intermediate 05 or high 075 adherence in fuzzy sets Notable examples of the use of QCA in other realms of organizational theory and management would help researchers to harvest the full potential of the method Crisp sets have been thoroughly explored by Marx et al 2013 They were notably employed by Balodi 2016 to understand young firm performance through entrepreneurial orientation and by Pattyn 2014 in the evaluation policies of Flemish organizations Fuzzy sets are explained in depth by Crilly 2013 in studying why managers deploy corporate social responsibility They were employed by Muñoz et al 2020 to understand organizational conditions that enable innovation in cooperative organizations The example offered in this chapter simplifies thresholds offering a basic rubric However in more rigorous studies it is crucial to define the limits for high adherence to educational principles and corresponding scores in comparison to other criteria Fiss 2007 and Ragin 2008 highlight that calibration is contextdependent enabling researchers to delve into theoretical and substantive specifics By aggregating configurational studies it would be possible to discern the organizational and economic configurations that generate cooperative advantage or a set of minimal structures for cooperatives to achieve their goals Configurations can help understand cooperative responses to paradoxes and tensions recognizing the stability of configurations and the actions necessary for balancing contradictory demands 5 Leveraging the configurations of cooperative economics and management From the conceptualization of cooperatives as CAS to the development of settheoretical approaches to their study researchers may find the configurational perspective useful for analyz ing configurations of conditions that lead cooperatives on a desired path Seny Kan et al 2016 suggest that configurational approaches may be employed in diverse situations that relate not only to the internal and external environment of these organizations but also to the intricate relation ships between the macro and the micro The ambitious task of understanding cooperative man agement as a function of economic variables may be tackled from a configurational standpoint providing both managerial and economic implications that should be addressed by managers and policymakers Caio Silva 138 For instance Novkovic and Sena 2007 introduced the conundrum of the impact of globalization on the ability of cooperatives to thrive in a competitive environment While com petitive pressures abound and one could theorize the demutualization and degeneration of the cooperative ideal the conditions under which cooperatives could flourish in a global market could be better understood through configurational lenses both in management and policy realms For example configurations could be employed in Bretos and Errastis 2017 work on Mondragóns internationalization strategies in capitalist subsidiaries especially the dynamics of degeneration regeneration of cooperative values cultural clashes and local economic pressures Similarly Basterretxea et al 2019 study of Fagor includes several factors regarding employee ownership HRM policies and HRM outcomes Configurations would be relevant to understand the causal mechanisms leading to chronic nepotism failure in training policy and reverse dominance hierar chies Finally Michaud and Audebrands 2022 work arguing for different governance practices in cooperatives based on paradoxical tensions could benefit from configurations highlighting the sets of tensions perceived by cooperative managers in empowering members and controlling their own discretion These examples range from the least granular a study of global market condi tions to the most granular perceived individual tensions and serve as a symbol of the flexibility of the configurational model In researching configurations scholars are expected to identify the sources of complexity that surround cooperatives as CAS Table 92 illustrates how each complexity element previously defined in cooperative management may be conceptualized in settheoretical terms and how sets could aid in understanding gaps in the literature on cooperatives as CAS This table is based on Cilliers 1998 typology of CAS and complemented by Stacey and Mowles 2016 perspective Table 92 portrays how each element of CAS can be quantitatively or qualitatively explored in research Quantitative methods could be used to assess degrees levels and frequency of activi ties in each set such as setting 01 crisp or fuzzy scale on employee background education depth ranging from high school to a PhD Most importantly each set can also be studied qualitatively by relying on finegrained detail For example interviews could be conducted with a sample of employees to understand their education levels and how they contribute to the diversity of skills and knowledge within the cooperative see SnelsonPowell et al 2016 for an example of analyz ing interviews using fuzzy sets When employing configurational methods to study cooperatives as CAS researchers must con sider the multifaceted and interconnected nature of their elements through a multilevel approach This intricacy calls for a multimethod approach to capture the nuances and dynamism of coop erative organizations By addressing the literature gaps identified in Table 92 researchers may gain new insights into unexplored or underexplored dimensions of cooperative organizations The introduction of a CAS lens and the possibilities of configurational methods may guide scholarship on cooperative economics and management toward new paths for theorization and practice that remain either untapped or isolated in disciplinary and thematic research silos For example studying interaction patterns and degrees among memberemployeesboard can help understand how and if high member interaction contributes to cooperative outcomes from both social and financial perspectives and shed light on the mechanisms that create coopera tive advantage through interaction As Muñoz et al 2020 point out this could potentially lead to more robust and effective cooperative management strategies Conversely addressing the challenge of studying feedback loops in cooperatives may provide valuable insights into the dynamics and consequences of member behavior change or consistency over time in coopera tive performance Cooperative organizations as complex adaptive systems 139 Table 92 CAS Elements in crispfuzzy sets addressing literature gaps CAS elements in cooperatives Sets crispfuzzy Literature gaps Interaction Regular team meetings Collaborative decisionmaking Membertomember communication Patterns and degrees of member interaction influence cooperative outcomes linking member behavior to cooperative performance Feedback Loops Feedback on memberemployee performance Response to memberemployee suggestions Effectiveness of formal feedback loops in understanding how members modify their behaviors and influence the dynamics and policies of the cooperative Open Systems External partnerships Knowledge exchange with external entities Connectedness with external parties Degree of openness provides insight into the potential adaptability and resilience of the cooperative revealing how external interactions shape decisions Emergence Different organizational forms adopted Innovative practices included in workflow Conditions leading to the emergence of new initiatives and structures influence innovation and organizational development Nonlinearity Decision outcomes Resource allocation outcomes Unexpected outcomes of cooperative activity The emergence of unexpected outcomes provides insights into the configurations of relationships influencing cooperative performance and development Adaptation Reactiveproactive market response strategies Resource allocation and management Strategies and responses to environmental changes that reveal how cooperative patterns of response adapt to market conditions Selforganization Memberinitiated projects Collective decisionmaking structures Extent and impact of selforganization among members and employees provide insight into innovation development and member contribution Evolution Changes in organizational structure over time Development of new strategies Introduction of new practices Evolutionary trajectories that lead to the adaptation and evolution of local forms to tackle changing conditions Heterogeneity Variety in memberemployee functions Variety in memberemployee educational backgrounds Diversity in memberemployee skillsets Diversity in member conditions reveals how heterogeneity influences problemsolving capabilities and performance Decentralization Member involvement in decisionmaking Distribution of resources to members Degree of decentralization and resource allocation that influences member participation Caio Silva 140 51 Expectations for cooperatives as CAS research Complexity research holds transformative potential in reshaping the current understanding of cooperative economics and management It opens avenues for the formulation of novel frame works and innovative perspectives that can refresh and expand current theoretical methodologi cal and empirical challenges A complexity perspective is needed if cooperatives are to effectively navigate and address contemporary grand challenges regarding economic inequality food secu rity and climate change Berrone et al 2016 As plural organizations cooperatives are uniquely positioned to provide sustainable reconciliation between social and economic welfare for diverse populations Table 93 illustrates some ambitious expectations that scholars could hold if a com plexity lens were to be employed in researching cooperative organizations 6 Conclusion Complexity research with its exploration into the intricate dynamics and multifaceted elements of organizations unveils transformative potential reshaping our comprehensive understanding of cooperatives By leveraging a configurational approach we can dissect the complex interplay of elements within cooperatives viewing them as Complex Adaptive Systems CAS This approach allows for the identification of various configurations of conditions and outcomes providing a nuanced understanding of the inherent complexities and adaptive capabilities within cooperatives The configurational approach opens innovative avenues for the formulation of novel frameworks and the development of new perspectives that can rejuvenate and broaden established knowledge Table 93 Expectations for scholarship on cooperatives as CAS Innovation Description Outcome Cooperative Strategies Investigation of strategies fostering social and economic objectives allowing cooperatives to deliver their dual goals Strategic frameworks for cooperative governance conceptual developments enhanced impact Improved Structures Research and development of robust organizational structures and practices to enhance resilience Models for cooperative resilience and adaptability development of new cooperative management theory understanding of strategy implementation issues Decisionmaking Processes Analysis of inclusive and equitable decisionmaking processes that cultivate shared ownership and commitment among members Frameworks for participative decisionmaking inclusive governance practices equitable participation cohesive cooperative environment Solutions for Sustainability Unveiling innovations that enhance cooperative sustainability in addressing uncertainty and disruption Sustainable cooperative development and exploration of cooperative options and alternatives Customizable Cooperative Models Broadranging theoretical findings fitting different contexts allowing cooperatives to leverage attributes and address challenges Diversified cooperative models of governance expansion of cooperative theory to different contexts and customization of governance to specific needs Cooperative organizations as complex adaptive systems 141 domains Fiss 2007 Ragin 2008 It enables the study of cooperatives in a way that recognizes the plurality and interdependence of conditions allowing for a more precise and enriched analy sis of how different elements interact and contribute to various outcomes within the coopera tive environment In a sense the essence of cooperative organizations as CAS is configurational This approach has the potential to be crucial for cooperatives to effectively navigate and address contemporary grand challenges It allows for a more robust and thorough exploration of how cooperatives given their pluralistic nature and inherent adaptability can act as agents of change reconciling social and economic welfare and offering sustainable solutions for the wellbeing of diverse populations By embracing a complexity perspective through a configurational approach cooperatives can gain deeper insights into the conditions and interactions that shape their struc tures strategies and outcomes This enhanced understanding can inform the development of inno vative adaptive and resilient cooperative models that are strategically positioned to respond to the evolving needs and challenges of our interconnected world In essence the power of the configurational approach in understanding cooperatives as CAS lies in its ability to offer a multidimensional view of the cooperative landscape illuminating the path for the development of resilient sustainable and impactful cooperative entities capable of addressing the pressing challenges of our times References Ashby W R 1991 Principles of the 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